Domain randomization has been a hot topic in robotics and computer vision since 2016-2017, when the first set of papers about it were released (Sadeghi et al., 2016, Tobin et al., 2017). The second one was featured in OpenAI’s subsequent blog post and video. They would later follow-up with some impressive work on training a robot hand to manipulate blocks. Domain randomization has thus quickly become a standard tool in our toolkit. In retrospect, the technique seems obviously useful. The idea, as I’ve seen Professor Abbeel state in so many of his talks, is to effectively randomize aspects of the training data (e.g., images a robot might see) in simulation, so that the real world looks just like another variation. Lilian Weng, who was part of OpenAI’s block-manipulating robot, has a good overview of domain randomization if you want a little more detail, but I highly recommend reading the actual papers as well, since most are relatively quick reads by research paper standards. My goal in this post is not to simply rehash the definition of domain randomization, but to go over concepts and examples that perhaps might not be obvious at first thought.

My main focus is on OpenAI’s robotic hand, or Dactyl as they call it, and I lean heavily on their preprint. Make sure you cite that with OpenAI as the first author! I will also briefly reference other papers that use domain randomization.

• In Dactyl there is a vision network and a control policy network. The vision network takes Unity-rendered images as input, and outputs the estimated object pose (i.e., a quaternion). The pose then gets fed into the control policy, which also takes as input the robot fingertip data. This is important: they are NOT training their policy directly from images to actions, but from fingertips and object pose to action. Training PPO — their RL algorithm of choice — directly on images would be horrendous. Domain randomization is applied in both the vision and control portions.

I assume they used Unity due to ease of programmatically altering images. They might have been able to do this in MuJoCo, which comes with rendering support, but I’m guessing it is harder. The lesson is to ensure that whatever rendering software one is using, make sure it is easy to programmatically change images.

• When performing domain randomization for some physical parameter, the mean of the range should correspond to reasonable physical values. If one thinks that friction is really 0.7 (whatever that means), then one should code the domain randomization using something like: friction = np.random.uniform(0.7-eps, 0.7+eps) where eps is a tuneable parameter. Real-world calibration and/or testing may be needed to find this “mean” value. OpenAI did this by running trajectories and minimizing mean squared error. I think they had to do this for at least the 264 MuJoCo parameters.

• It may help to add correlated noise to observations (i.e., pose and fingertip data) and physical parameters (e.g., block sizes and friction) that gets sampled at the beginning of each episode, but is kept fixed for the episode. This may lead to better consistency in the way noise is applied. Intuitively, if we consider the real world, the distribution of various parameters may vary from that in simulation, but it’s not going to vary during a real-world episode. For example, the size of a block is going to stay the same throughout the robotic hand’s manipulation. An interesting result from their paper was that an LSTM memory-augmented policy could learn the kind of randomization that was applied.

• Actor-Critic methods use an actor and a critic. The actor is the policy, and the critic estimates a value function. A key insight is that only data passed to the actor needs to be randomized during training. Why? The critic’s job is to accurately assess the value of a state so that it can assist the actor. During deployment, only the trained actor is needed, which gets real-world data as input. Adding noise to the critic’s input will make its job harder.

This reminds me of another OpenAI product, Asymmetric Actor-Critic (AAC), where the critic gets different input than the actor. In AAC, the critic gets a lower-dimensional state representation instead of images, which makes it easier to accurately assess the value of a state, and it’s fine for training because, again, the value network is what gets deployed. Oh, and surprise surprise, the Asymmetric Actor-Critic paper also used domain randomization, and mentioned that randomizing colors should be applied independently (or separately) for each object. I agree.

• When applying randomization to images, adding uniform, Gaussian, and/or “salt and pepper noise” is not sufficient. In our robot bed-making paper, I used these forms of noise to augment the data, but data augmentation is not the same as domain randomization, which is applied to cases when we train in simulation and transfer to the real world. In our paper, I was using the same real-world images that the robot saw. With domain randomization, we want images that look dramatically different from each other, but which are also realistic and similar from a human’s perspective. We can’t do this with Gaussian noise, but we can do this by randomizing hue, saturation, value, and colors, along with lighting and glossiness. OpenAI only applied per-pixel Gaussian noise at the end of this process.

Another option, which produces some cooler-looking images, is to use procedural generation of image textures. This is the approach taken in these two papers from Imperial College London (ICL), which use “Perlin noise” to randomize images. I encourage you to check out the papers, particularly the first one, to see the rendered images.

• Don’t forget camera randomization. OpenAI randomized the positions and orientations with small uniform noise. (They actually used three images simultaneously, so they have to adjust all of them.) Both of the ICL papers said camera randomization was essential. Unfortunately the sim-to-real cloth paper did not precisely explain their camera randomization parameters, but I’m assuming it is the same as their prior work. Camera randomization is also used in the Dexterity Network project. From communicating with the authors (since they are in our lab), I think they used randomization before it was called “domain randomization.”

I will keep these and other tricks in mind when applying domain randomization. I agree with OpenAI in that it is important for deploying machine learning based robotics in the real world. I know there’s a “Public Relations” aspect to everything they promote, but I still think that the technique matters a lot, and will continue to be popular in the near future.